THE LACUNA AS A LINGUISTIC CONCEPT

ABSTRACT

This paper explores the phenomenon of lacunae in intercultural communication and identifies them as key factors contributing to differences in worldviews and communicative practices between different cultures. In addition, the paper contributes to the understanding of the 'lacunarised nature' of intercultural interaction and emphasises the importance of cultural awareness in optimising it.

Keywords: linguistics, lexicon, lacuna, accidental gap, syntax, lexical unit, cognitive linguistics, intercultural communication.

The term 'lacuna' was first introduced to the field of linguistics by Canadian scientists J.P. Vinet and J. Darbelnet. They define it as "a phenomenon that occurs whenever a word of one language has no correspondence in another language" [5, 3 p.]. This phenomenon is also referred to as an "accidental gap".

Furthermore, many linguists (Y.S. Stepanov, V.L. Muravyev, etc.) define a lacuna as a co-word (a stable word combination) of another language that is not present in a given language, expressing a concept that "in this language requires more or less spatial periphrases to convey it" [5, 6 p.]. In our opinion, V.G. Gak's explanation of the phenomenon of lacunarity is more succinct, defining lacunas as 'omissions in the lexical system of the language, the absence of words that seemingly should have been present in the language, if we proceed from its reflective function (i.e. its task to denote the phenomena of objective reality) and from the lexical system of the language' [2, 261 p.].

The broad spectrum of synchronic lacunae can be categorised into two primary classifications: interlingual and intralingual.

To illustrate this, we may consider the Russian lacuna denoting "брат и сестра verbesshet" - "siblings" - when contrasted with its English equivalent. Similarly, in the transition from English to Russian, the word "положить в коробку" is used, while in Russian, "положить в коробку" is "положить в коробку". Interlingual lacunae represent a highly studied and well-researched type of lacunae in the field of linguistics.

In contrast, intralingual lacunae have not received the same level of scrutiny. This lacunae type has not yet become the subject of due attention from linguists. Notable contributions to the study of this issue have been made by G.V. Bykova, who revealed the linguistic essence of the phenomenon of intralingual lacunarity.

Intralingual lacunas are defined as occurring in a monolingual situation when the language in question lacks a word to denote an existing concept, despite the potential for such a word to exist within the lexical system of a given language. To illustrate, the Russian language incorporates words denoting the concept of "reporting negative facts" (жалоба, донос), yet lacks a lexical equivalent for reporting positive facts. Recently married couples are referred to as "newlyweds", while long-married spouses are designated as "those who have been married for so many years" or "they have been married for a long time".

In the absence of an appropriate lexical unit in the language, in case of communicative necessity, it is compensated at the level of syntax, disjointly. As G.V. Bykova writes, 'the most common intralingual lexical lacuna is the semantic content before its objectivation in a new word, when there is no coupling of the ideal with the material (sound shell), i.e. in the form of a several-word name, which sooner or later becomes (and usually becomes) a semantic base, a 'springboard', a 'launching pad' for lexical objectivation' [1, 45 p.].

It is a well-established fact that, with a few exceptions, syntactic units are not reproduced, but are created as required and disintegrate when they are no longer needed. Free word combinations, being syntactic units, disintegrate at the conclusion of the act of communication.

A descriptive way of storing a concept (lacuna) is less preferable than a lexical unit. In accordance with the universal law of speech economy, native speakers of Russian strive to eliminate lacunas, which serves as an impetus to create an intermediate non-word name, and ideally - a separate word, for example: "породы лиственных деревьев, терящих листья осенью" – чёрный лес – чернолесье.

The underlying reasons for the emergence of lacunas in this context warrant further investigation. A number of authors have linked the causes of lacunas with the problem of universals in worldview, culture, and language (K. Hale). An individual possesses mastery over their culture, its values as a unified ethnic entity. This enables discourse on the ethno-cultural (or national-cultural) specificity of speech communication.

In cognitive linguistics (A.I. Sternin, Z.D. Popova) and several other fields, the presence of lacunas is frequently inferred from the incommensurability of world pictures. According to G.G. Pocheptsov, the fundamental aspect in such instances is the "principle of peaks", which posits that components of the world that appear to be of paramount importance are subject to reflection. The depiction of the world is subject to change, variability, individuality and personalisation. However, it simultaneously reflects socially typical perceptions of a substantial social group of native speakers, namely the nation. This, in turn, gives rise to the concept of the national and cultural specificity of the linguistic reflection of the linguistic personality's worldview, which is characterised by a national specificity in its worldview and linguistic thinking. This specificity underlies the concept of the "lacunized character" of interlinguocultural communication, with the differences lying in the linguistic world pictures of the contacting cultures [6].

From a philosophical perspective, the following types of lacunas are distinguished: worldview, ontological, epistemological, logical, social, activity, and communicative.

Worldview lacunas are defined as global inconsistencies, denoting points of ignorance in the world picture, "inconsistencies" in the system of values at the civilizational level, and differences in the ways of understanding and thinking styles at the global level. From a gnoseological and logical perspective, these lacunas can manifest as problems, contradictions, or paradoxes. Explicitly, they are revealed through their linguistic form in the process of interaction of languages, texts, in speech and communication. It is therefore unsurprising that linguistics has emerged as the preeminent discipline for the study of this phenomenon.

The cognitive sources of lacunarity encompass both scientific problems and real problems that have become the subject of study. For instance, the lack of understanding regarding the nature of heat led to the emergence of lacunae, which were subsequently addressed through scientific and quasi-scientific assumptions. The theory of heat nature served to replace this ignorance, compensating for the lacuna, but did not yield a tangible result.

However, should this lacuna be realised, it must be replaced or compensated, irrespective of the existence of the real conditions for its cognition and elimination. Consequently, in the event that scientific knowledge is inadequate in addressing these lacunae, they may be filled by pseudoscientific means.

The existence of lacunae can be attributed to the phenomenon of communication. Intercultural communication has the capacity to unveil discrepancies and incongruences in worldviews, mentalities, realities and linguistic differences. The recognition of these differences in world views and mentalities underscores the fundamental disparity in the understanding of the world and one's own identity that is characteristic of interacting social subjects. This discrepancy can manifest in diverse ways, including within scientific discourse, educational processes, diplomatic and political spheres, and ideological contexts. Conflicts, such as wars and acts of terrorism, represent overt manifestations of these underlying differences, which may or may not be fully recognised, yet often manifest at the level of social unconsciousness.

Ontological lacunas are defined as realities, that is to say, social, cultural, everyday, economic elements of the way of life of a society, individual, group, which constitute its inherent quality and which may be absent in another nation, in another country. Fundamental examples of ontological lacunas manifest as geographical disparities, which vary considerably among human populations inhabiting diverse ecological zones, including steppe, mountain, riverine, and oceanic regions. Similarly, economic realities, encompassing both commodity and non-commodity economies, are likely to vary significantly across different societies. These economic differences are believed to underpin the development of distinct personality types. The consumption of meat, fish, rye bread or boiled rice does not merely reflect gastronomic preferences, but rather represents divergent realities shaped by an ethnos's adaptation to the natural factors of survival. The Japanese diet, for instance, is characterised by a preference for fish, rice and vegetables.

The absence of meat in Japanese cuisine was not due to a general disdain for meat or religious proscriptions, as food prohibitions played a negligible role in the lives of the majority. Rather, the primary factor was the necessity of pasture-based livestock farming. The financial constraints associated with maintaining such pastures rendered this option unfeasible for the Japanese. The near-total absence of cattle in the country had a significant impact on defence affairs. During the Mongol invasions of 1274 and 1281, the invaders encountered a significant challenge in procuring sufficient fodder for their livestock, as the island's meat supply was severely limited, and the consumption of fish was considered "unclean" by the Mongols. This "dietary catastrophe" was a contributing factor to the swift cessation of hostilities on both occasions [4].

The concept of reality encompasses not only material aspects of social existence, but also spiritual elements, including familiar musical instruments, music itself, dances, performances, games, and other universals of culture. The manifestation of cultural universals is indicative of the ethnic and national specificity of a given people, as evidenced by the originality of language, rituals, customs and traditions.

From a value perspective, it is possible to distinguish between lacunae in the worldview that are aesthetic, moral, religious, political, and legal in nature. It is important to note that worldview and worldview differences are not solely rational phenomena; they also possess emotional components. It is through emotions that the translation and communication of value-evaluative components of consciousness is realised.

For a considerable period, researchers have neglected to examine the emotional aspect of intercultural communication, which, from our perspective, consistently functions as a prevailing dominant trend in the national character and stereotypes of any culture. It is widely acknowledged that emotions are a cultural construct, and that their verbalisation in different linguistic cultures does not always coincide in form, volume and quality of emotive meanings. The emotive lexicon and phraseology of a given language conveys its national perspective on feelings, and the grouping of emotive signs according to initial emotive meanings reflects the global picture of feelings. This knowledge of emotions exerts a significant influence on speech behaviour in both types of communication: intra- and intercultural. Emotions and emotional evaluations, in their immediacy, are most responsive to cultural differences. The verbalisation of emotional meanings has been shown to rationalise and ideologise these differences [4]. According to V. I. Shakhovsky, emotional-cultural concepts, being national in spirit, are often untranslatable to other ethno-cultural planets, which explains their lacunarity.

When confronted with a "foreign" culture or a cultural text from another nation, the recipient consciously and unconsciously evaluates it through the lens of their own cultural "codes". This a priori framework, therefore, establishes the basis for an inadequate distribution of specific cultural features of the "foreign" culture. These features may be interpreted inaccurately by the recipient or entirely misunderstood. Any elements of a foreign cultural text that are perceived yet not understood, and thus appear strange, serve as indications of the presence of nationally specific cultural elements within the text, i.e. lacunas.

One of the most striking instances of intercultural misunderstanding was the situation concerning N. S. Khrushchev. During his visit to the United States at the height of the Cold War, Khrushchev greeted the press by shaking hands above his head, thereby symbolising the desire for friendship between nations.

However, the American press interpreted this gesture as a symbol of victory, aligning with their cultural attitudes. In contrast, the Soviet press interpreted the gesture as a sign of defeat towards the United States [3].

It is therefore proposed that "lacunas" be regarded as such conditions arising in intercultural communication, which cause the difference and non-contact of cultural and linguistic communities. These lacunae have been identified as a potential source of misunderstanding, disagreement, and conflict. However, it is important to note that this destructive role is not attributed to the mere presence of lacunas as alien elements of culture. Instead, it is recognised that these lacunae serve to signal the fundamental characteristics of a given culture. These characteristics, in turn, are the very sources of its informational diversity and the basis for information redundancy. This redundancy, in turn, provides adaptive opportunities in the development of humanity. It is our contention that the hallmarks of lacunarity – such as incomprehensibility, unfamiliarity, exoticism, and strangeness – serve as external indicators of the process of intercultural communication, signifying the absence of congruence in value paradigms.

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