EVOLUTION OF SURVEYING EQUIPMENT: FROM CLASSICS TO DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES

​ABSTRACT

The article examines the development of mine surveying equipment from classical instruments to modern digital technologies. It describes the evolution of mine surveying tools, including the transition from optical theodolites and levels to electronic total stations, laser 3D scanners, GNSS receivers, and unmanned aerial vehicles. Special attention is given to the role of software in data processing and modeling of mining structures. The advantages of digital solutions in improving the accuracy, speed, and safety of mine surveying work are highlighted.

Keywords: mine surveying, measuring instruments, digital technologies, total station, GNSS receiver, laser scanning, drones, software, surveying equipment, 3D modeling.

Since ancient times, humanity has been engaged in the extraction of mineral resources, which created the need to accurately determine the boundaries of mining operations and monitor the safety of underground workings. This led to the gradual formation of the mine surveyor profession. Even in those early times, specialists sought convenient methods for measuring and orienting underground. In Russia, mine surveying began to actively develop during the reign of Peter the Great, when the targeted search and development of mineral deposits was initiated.

The word “markscheider” comes from the German words “Mark” (boundary) and “Scheider” (divider). Today, a mine surveyor is not just a measurer, but an engineer responsible for the geometric accuracy of mining and construction objects at all stages—from exploration to operation. This profession requires not only knowledge but also the ability to work with modern instruments and software.

Nowadays, mine surveying is rapidly evolving thanks to the adoption of digital technologies. With the rapid development of the mining and construction industries, there is an increasing need for greater accuracy, efficiency, and safety in mine surveying operations. Studying the evolution of mine surveying equipment not only helps us understand the roots of the profession but also highlights the importance of technological advancements for its continued development, making this topic particularly relevant for future professionals.

The aim of this research is to analyze the historical development of mine surveying instruments—from classical tools to modern digital technologies.

The history of the first geodetic instruments began during the flourishing of early civilizations such as Egypt, China, and Babylon, alongside the development of agriculture and the construction of the first settlements. Land division, planning and building irrigation systems, and the construction of pyramids and temples all required precise measurements and an understanding of geometry.

The most basic tools for measuring distances were the rope and the rod. A rope marked at equal intervals, with knots at the ends used to form right angles, served to determine lengths. The rod, also known as a measuring staff, was a metal or wooden stick used to align and fix points on the ground.

Picture 1. Rope

One of the simplest astronomical instruments was the gnomon—a vertical stick fixed on a flat surface that cast a shadow. By observing the length and direction of the shadow, one could determine the time of day, the direction of north, and the latitude of the location.

Picture 2. Gnomon

A predecessor of the modern level was the “vaterpas” (water level), used to determine the horizontality of surfaces, the verticality of structures, and to measure angles of inclination. It was a rectangular wooden or metal tool resembling a compass, with a plumb line attached. A square frame mounted on the instrument served as a substitute for a protractor.

Picture 3. Water level

Picture 4. Measuring the angle of inclination with a water level

An early forerunner of the modern theodolite was the dioptra. This instrument allowed for measuring angles between two points. It consisted of a ruler with sighting devices (visors) at both ends. The ruler rotated on a circular base, which could be positioned horizontally or vertically, allowing users to mark directions in both planes.

Picture 5. Dioptra

Despite the absence of modern technology, ancient mine surveyors achieved impressive results. Their knowledge and skills laid the foundation for modern mine surveying and geodesy. They proved that even with the simplest tools, it was possible to measure the Earth and construct complex engineering structures.

With the transition to digital technologies, the tools used by mine surveyors have undergone significant changes. Modern instruments enable measurements to be carried out faster, more accurately, and more safely. While most tasks previously had to be performed manually, many processes are now automated, and surveys can be completed in just a few minutes.

Contemporary mine surveying is unimaginable without digital technologies, which have fundamentally transformed the approach to measurement and design tasks. One of the most important tools in modern practice is the electronic total station. Unlike the traditional theodolite, it combines the functions of measuring both angles and distances, while simultaneously saving the data in the device’s memory. This greatly speeds up the survey process and reduces the number of errors. Many electronic total station models can automatically locate the reflector, which is especially convenient for solo work. Additionally, these instruments can be connected to a laptop or tablet, allowing for immediate viewing and transferring of data into software for further processing.

Picture 6. Electronic total

Laser 3D scanners also play a crucial role in modern mine surveying. These devices can quickly collect vast amounts of spatial data and generate accurate digital models of objects. This approach makes it possible not only to visualize surface shapes but also to detect potential deformations, subsidence, or cracks. Laser scanning is particularly valuable in hazardous areas—such as abandoned workings or collapse-prone zones—where human presence could be dangerous. Thus, 3D scanning not only improves measurement accuracy but also significantly enhances the safety of surveying operations.

Picture 7. Laser 3D scanners

GNSS receivers, which use satellite navigation systems, have also become widely used. These instruments allow for centimeter-level accuracy in coordinate determination, especially in RTK mode. This is particularly useful when surveying large areas such as open-pit mines, construction sites, and industrial zones. Unlike traditional methods, GNSS technology does not require the installation of numerous additional reference points, reducing fieldwork time and simplifying preparation. Moreover, these receivers operate effectively in almost any environment—from open terrain to forested or rugged areas.

Picture 8-.GNSS receivers

A true technological breakthrough in mine surveying has been the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)—drones. They make it possible to quickly perform aerial surveys of large areas, produce orthophotos, and generate 3D models of objects. This method is especially effective in hard-to-reach or dangerous locations, where ground-based work would be difficult or risky. Drones save time, improve safety, and provide more comprehensive and visually clear survey results.

Picture 9. Drones

The optical level is used to determine height differences between points. It is essential for measuring subsidence, deformations, and for monitoring the condition of underground workings. The instrument is easy to use and well-suited for underground environments where high precision is required.

Picture 10. Optical level

The optical theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles. It helps in accurately aligning underground passages, building mine surveying networks, and conducting topographic surveys. The theodolite is also easy to use and is widely applied both in mines and on the surface.

Picture 11. Optical theodolite

Table 1.

Comparative characteristics of devices

Today, the software suite nanoCAD holds an important place among the digital tools used by mine surveyors in their work. This system was developed as an accessible and user-friendly alternative to foreign software and quickly gained popularity due to its simplicity and functionality. nanoCAD includes a dedicated mine surveying module that assists in creating mine plans and cross-sections, maintaining documentation, and analyzing spatial data. The program supports DWG file format and easily integrates with data obtained from geodetic instruments. Most importantly, nanoCAD is well-suited for working under import substitution conditions, allowing the use of domestic technologies without compromising quality or convenience.

The development of mine surveying instruments has come a long way—from mechanical and optical devices to high-tech digital systems. Each new generation of tools has not only improved measurement accuracy but also made the work of specialists safer and more efficient. Modern technologies such as laser scanning, unmanned aerial vehicles, and 3D modeling software are opening new horizons in the field of mine surveying.

References:

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